Integrated Managment

Careful management is key to ensure all riparians benefit equally for a shared water resource and have sufficient water to prevent a situation of water stress. To aid the three nations to achieve this the Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission also known as OKACOM was formed. 

OKACOM is a water commission and advisory authority set up by the three nations in 1994 to ensure the co-operative management of the Okavango River whilst still promoting the social and developmental needs of each riparian . The commission is funded by the 3 countries and consists of representatives from each nation who meet on a yearly basis, sometimes more.

Also known as the commission, OKACOM is a technical consultant to governments on a whole series of matters including: development, conservation and sustainable resource use. The OKACOM Agreement signed in 1994 gives the organisation the legal power to:

- find out the long term and safe yield of the river basin
- estimate demand from consumers
- suggest mitigating measures against pollution
- investigate water infrastructures
- develop ways to alleviate short term problems (e.g. droughts)
- prepare criteria for conservation, fair allocations and sustainable water usage
- bring any other issues determined by OKACOM onto the table

OKACOM aims to anticipate and reduce negative impacts that happen as a result of uncoordinated development by offering nations a way to develop a management plan for the river basin based on sustainability, equitable allocations and that benefits should be shared among members. For this to occur the commission collaborates with foreign organisations and makes sure any integrated management of the Okavango basin improves livelihoods, aids development and looks after biodiversity.

The commission mainly take on an advisory role but it also prides itself on ‘action based on knowledge’ and this has been vital in ensuring that members are aware of any transboundary issues occurring in the basin.

OKACOM's 17th meeting (source: OKACOM)

On the whole the development of OKACOM has been pivotal for the Okavango basin nations as it has allowed them to co-ordinate projects that can meet development and conservation goals whilst assuring they will not negatively impact other riparian states. Integrated and collaborative management is therefore key in transboundary water systems as it promotes water security and reduces contention. Continual monitoring the basin and this way of co-coordinating development will also prove vital in addressing and mitigating any future pressures as the rising population increases in Africa and as climate change may negatively affect water conditions in the Okavango basin. 

Battles on the River

This post will be exploring the conflicts that arise from the transboundary Okavango River as states try to develop but are restricted due to challenges with water security.

There are several factors and projects that are points of contention in the area. One reason is the unequal distribution of water. Angola receives 94.5% of river flow whilst Namibia and Botswana receives around 3% this means to prevent a conflict Angola would need to ensure their water usage does not limit other riparians. Moreover, as Namibia and Botswana experience regular drought and are some of the driest states in Africa the river is vital for their survival. Botswana’s economy is reliant on tourism based around the delta which also supports the plants and animals that over 500,000 depend on and argues that it loses 97% of its water to evaporation. During the rainy period Angola receives triple the amount of precipitation Botswana does and this rainfall can take more than four months to reach the delta -given that it does not bypass the region. In Namibia the river supports employment through supporting the local ecosystem.

Tourism is a key industry in the Okavango delta, Botswana (source: MissQuinn)

The dependence of the downstream nations on the upstream riparian to use the river responsibly has led to the proposals of schemes that ensure a steady water supply. For example, Namibia built a canal and wishes to build a pipe that will divert water into the nation to stabilise water supply during droughts but this will have negative impact on local biodiversity , it also wished to build a dam but this was cancelled due to protests from the Botswana tourism industry . International organisations have tried to run projects to aid development (food production, irrigation and dams, employment opportunities, improve utilisation resources) but the affect these projects have on the river and what it means to riparians were not addressed. Another water-related conflict is that of riverine island disputes which may also cause political tension between states.

A drip irrigation farm in the region (source: Okavango Properties)

For years regions used the river however they wanted but as populations and awareness of the upstream-downstream relationship grew this would no longer work. Thus to address challenges in development and water security for all riparian states an integrated rive management scheme was needed – enter OKACOM.

Save the delta!

Further to my last post in which I mentioned that conservation groups have a vested interest in the Okavango River Basin and its management, I came across this old article in the Guardian. The writer describes the Okavango as 'the most important Ramsar site in the world' and that, in order to ensure its diverse ecosystem is protected, more information and monitoring needs to be done of contributing upstream rivers in Angola. This statement illustrates how stakeholders are not only the riparians states but also those who find a value in the river basin- be it economically or environmentally. It also goes to show how the management of the basin may be influenced by international agents and pressures and why hydropolitical analyses need to consider wider issues when understanding the management of transboundary water resources.


Here is a documentary on the Okavango delta so that you can see for yourself how important the ecosystem is and just how many species rely on it. Enjoy!

(p.s also recommend trying to finding the BBC's Steve Backshall documentary on the Okavango if you're interested in this sort of thing- or even if you just want to see the stunning cinematography of the landscape!)

Those with a vested interest

This post will just be another brief introductory post about the various stakeholders who have an interest and share the waters of the Okavango.

The Stakeholders:

There are three main stakeholders who rely on the Okavango River – Angola, Namibia and Botswana. Water abstraction from the river are unequal as Angola requires 51.4%, Namibia abstracts 39.1 % and Botswana 9.5% (FAO, 2015).

Angola-

There are 5 main ethnic groups who live in different parts of the basin: the Umbundo, Ganguela, Lunda-Tchokwe, Ambó and Xindonga (OKACOM, n/d). Other than the Ambó and Xindonga groups who are cattle farmers, the other communities practice traditional farming techniques. In the Ganguela community around 50% of them live in the basin – the highest proportion compared to the other ethnic groups (OKACOM, n/d).

Namibia-

Similarly there are 5 different communities that occupy the river basin from the West to East. The Kwangali and Mbunza groups make up 50% of the basin population. The other 3 main groups are the Shabyu, Gciriku and Mbukushu (OKACOM, n/d). The Bugakw group use traditional methods to catch fish, hunt and gather wild plant and the Xanekwe settlements heavily rely on the river for tier resources (OKACOM, n/d).

Botswana-

There are three main ethic societies who live near the river (Bahambukushu, Bayeyi and Batawana) whilst in the delta there are five separate ethnic groups who, like most of these communities, have their own languages and cultural traditions.

In all three stakeholder countries the traditional use of the river by different ethnic groups may lead to conflict especially if climate change and population growth means there is an increased demand but a reduced supply. Clashes between different communities over water are not uncommon for example, in Nigeria due to damming upstream in the Hadejia-Jama’are rivers’ reduced river flow caused tension between local farmers and nomadic pastoralists as farming became more difficult and so the grazing by cattle caused more damage than in the past.

The varying uses of the Okavango by its riparians may also cause conflict as a growing population may want to use the water for urban supply but nations who have a strong tourism industry based on the river and delta may need water levels to remain the same. International stakeholder may also have a vested interest  in the river for example tour-operators who plan recreational activities based on the river and even conservation groups such as WWF who may argue against upstream dams in order to protect the biodiversity found in the delta. 

Traditional fishing methods along the Okavango (source: National Geographic)

Sharing the Jewel of the Kalahari

As the title suggests in this blog I will be looking at how different stakeholders share the Jewel of the Kalahari - the Okavango River. I will discuss the different actors who rely on the river as well as the management plans that can help mitigate any conflicts in later posts but this first post is just to give readers a little bit of background...

Area:

The Okavango River is in southwest Africa and is the 4th longest river system in Southern Africa. The river runs 1600km southeast from the highland plateau in Angola (as the Cubango and Cuito Rivers) through Namibia until it drains into its' outlet the Okavango Delta in Botswana (UNDP, 2011). The areal extent of the basin is greater than its contributing area (OKACOM) with the principal flow comes from sub-humid and semi-arid region in the Angola, a total of 11 billion cubic metres flows in the river in a year. The river relatively pristine as not much human modifications have occurred on the river, it is also unique in that it does not drain to the sea but into an inland delta system of lakes, evaporation pans, canals and a swamp in the Kalahari Desert. This inland delta is an important source of water for local people, income from tourism and is ecologically significant as it supports a diverse range of organisms (25000 different plant species, 65 fish, and 650 birds) and habitats which is why it was given World Heritage status in 2014.

The Okavango River Basin (source: EcologyandSociety)

At the moment the basin supports a population of 921, 890 (OKACOM) who mainly live in less developed rural settlements along the river and in Namibia and Botswana only a part of population living near the river rely on its surface waters, however this figure is projected to rise to 1.28 million in 2025. These countries are also experiencing rapid urbanisation as populations grow, incomes rise, education enrolment increase and economies expand (Mendelsohn and Obied, 2004; Barnes et al. 2005) which in turn will cause an increase for water demand and pollution. 

This post was just a quick introduction to the region and the river- stay tuned for the next post where you'll meet the stakeholders!

The Jewel of the Kalahari - a view of the Okavango river and delta from Botswana

Predictions

Since I have been mentioning how climate change and a rising population will affect future water security and in turn hydropolitics in Africa I thought it would be best to share with you the predicted changes that will occur before we delve into some casestudies.

Africa's population is already five times what it was in the 1950s and is expected to continue rising (see graph below). It is predicted that the population will rise to 2.4 billion by 2050 and reach 4.2 billion by 2100. Despite a slowing growth rate in the continent more than half of the rise in world population between 2015 to 2050 (2.2 billion) will occur in Africa (UNICEF, 2014). This, along with an increasing population density will put more pressure on water resources and may lead to problems with supplying enough water to meet demand particularly in areas where water sources are shared with different stakeholders.

Predicted Population Projections in Africa (source:UN DESA)

This factsheet produced by UNEP provides a nice summary on the expected outcomes of climate change in Africa. 

Rises in temperature are expected to be higher in Africa than globally and the average temperature is projected to rise 1.5-3°C by 2050. Warming will also lead to a sea-level rise which could increase flooding in Eastern Africa and will put Africa's 320 coastal cities at risk. There will be changes in annual and seasonal precipitation and an increase in extreme events (flooding and droughts). There is also great variability within the continent which could put nations in Africa under more pressure compared to other countries. Rainfall is expected to decrease in most parts of Africa but it is predicted that mean annual rainfall will increase in East Africa. Droughts will become more common in the tropics and subtropics and arid and semi-arid areas in Africa are expected to rise by 5-8% in 2080.  

Overall, climate change will place between 75 to 250 million people under a state of water stress by 2020 which could rise to 350-600 million by 2050. This will have knock-on effects on health, socio-economic conditions, food production and security.

Although there are uncertainties about population growth and climate change (and climate change variability) and the extent of their impacts, it is likely that they will place further stress on water sources. These factors may lead to water shortages as demand for freshwater cannot be met due to problems with access and the availability of water. Moreover, these problems may be even worse in areas of a shared river basin and so hydropolitics must address changes in population and climate to establish a fair agreement for water usage between stakeholders is made that will ensure water security.

First things first

So before we start I thought it would be a good idea to go over some key ideas to get a better understanding of what hydropolitics means and what it tries to address.

So firstly, hydropolitics is important because it’s all about water (obviously)!

‘No life as we know it is possible without the simple but remarkably versatile molecule H2O, water' 

Leif Ohlsson (1995)

Water is not just essential for sustaining life but also for its development. As mentioned by C.A. Mumma Mortinon (2010), waterways are vital for ‘trade, recreation, fishing, industry, agriculture, communication, tourism, culture and settlements’ and is a basic human right (Kofi Annan, 2001).

The wide variety of water usage and sheer volume of water consumption as well as growing populations result in a rising demand for freshwater and thus issues with supplying that demand.

Moreover, many sites of freshwater sources have become sites of contention as they are shared by multiple nations and users. In fact half of the Earth’s land surface is covered by 263 transboundary lakes and river basins (UN). The figure below shows the number of internationally shared basins in Africa and highlights why the issues of hydropolitics are important to the continent.

International River Basins in Africa (source:UN,TFDD)

Hydropolitics:
Elhance 's (1997) definition of hydropolitics (mentioned in the first post) looks at hydropolitics in terms of conflict and cooperation in international basins and sees the state as the main actor. However Meissner's (1999) definition of hydropolitics considers how different stakeholders (state, non-state, those outside and within the state) share national and international water resources. It also looks at the sovereignty over water and the authoritative allocation of water. Now whilst both these definitions look at an authoritative system of water allocation, it is increasingly recognised that hydropolitics involves: a range of actors working at different scales, requires decision making on the allocation of water which leads to trade-offs, most decisions lead to some contention and that water allocations need to consider a range of issues (social, food security, political, ecological, gender etc) (Turton, 2002).

On the whole hydropolitics aims to understand how water can be shared in a equitable and sustainable manner in order to avoid a state of water scarcity.

Water Stress Index:
This index produced by Falkenmark (1989) compiled data on water usage from multiple nations to produce a series of figures that indicate the water conditions of a country in terms of water usage per person.
The research suggested that a figure of 1700cm³ per capita water usage was a sufficient amount of water whilst an amount lower than that indicated a region facing water stress. A per capita usage of below 1000cm³ suggests a situation of water scarcity and a figure below 500cm³ a region facing absolute water scarcity.

The graph below shows that by 2025 no nation in sub-Saharan Africa will have above sufficient access to water and most countries will be facing a situation of water scarcity and stress. Thus to prevent water shortages leading to conflict and water wars it is imperative to come to agreements and resolutions on how to share water.

Water Scarcity in Africa (source: UNEP)

Water Rights:
One way water may be shared is through the allocation of water rights. Water rights may be informal or formal and the allocation of water rights can be another source of conflict. They are defined as the 'demands to use a flow of water, including privileges, restrictions, obligations and sanctions where it is key to make collective decisions on management (Beccar et al., 2002). Water rights go hand in hand with management where cooperation is needed for the efficient use of water. However, reaching agreements on water allocations can be difficult as stakeholders make different claims for shared water. This could include: local communities seeing water as a common property, traditional water rights, privatised water and water for markets, riparian, riverine and both internal and external sovereignty (Green Cross, 2000).

Therefore, water rights work at various scales and allocations are usually indicative of the power structures between and within nations. So to reduce disputes over water and prevent a 'tragedy of the commons', governance over allocations and management schemes need to cooperate with both local communities and different stakeholders to ensure a stable water supply for the future (UNESCO, 2006).

Several treaties and regulations have been drawn up by various organisations to help make sharing water resources more equitable but like all agreements trade-offs have to be made and these can often lead to conflicts. Conflicts which may only be exacerbated by rising demand and climate change. But more on the different agreements later (something to look forward to I'm sure!).

This post hopefully gave you a brief insight into the sort of issues and aims hydropolitics tries to address as well as a very brief introduction into the concepts of water scarcity and water rights. The rest of the posts will mainly deal with the different resolutions and claims countries make for water resources and will focus on nations in Africa where millions of people rely on water from shared river basins and, where a rising population and changing climate pose a serious risk to water security. 

Welcome

Well if you haven't guessed it yet this blog is all about hydropolitics. Defined by Elhance (1999) as 'the systematic study of  conflict and cooperation over international water resources', hydropolitics examines the different (often conflicting) interests of various stakeholders utilising the same water source and how they go around resolving these issues.

Moreover, with rising populations, increasing usage and climate change, pressure on the world's water resources are rapidly increasing and hydropolitics is vital in understanding how water can be shared equitably and sustainably between multiple users around a river basin with minimal conflict.

Thus in this blog by focusing on river basin in Africa I aim to explore the contention that arises between different  users over a shared water resource and how different stakeholders can find an effective solution that will ensure their water needs are met without causing water scarcity elsewhere.